“A METHODICAL” HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

ANTHONY (1963)	RICHARDS & ROGERS (1982/2003)	BROWN (1994)
APPROACH IS A SET OF ASSUMPTIONS DEALING WITH THE NATURE OF LG LEARNING AND TEACHING. IT IS AXIOMATIC. METHOD IS AN OVERALL PLAN FOR SYSTEMATIC PRESENTATION OF LANGUAGE BASED ON SELECTED APPROACH. IT IS PROCEDURAL. TECHNIQUES ARE THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES MANIFESTED IN A SELECTED APPROACH. IT IS IMPLEMENTATIONAL.	A METHOD IS AN UMBRELLA TERM FOR THE SPECIFICATION INTERRELATION OF THEORY AND PRACTICE AN APPROACH DEFINES ASSUMPTIONS, BELIEFS, AND THEORIES ABOUT THE NATURE OF LG AND LG LEARNING DESIGNS SPECIFY THE RELATIONSHIP OF THOSE THEORIES TO CLASSROOM MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES PROCEDURES ARE THE TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES THAT ARE DERIVED FROM ONE’ APPROACH AND DESIGN.	METHODOLOGY : THE STUDY OF PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES IN GENERAL. AN APPROACH : THEORETICAL POSITIONS AND BELIEFS ABOUT THE NATURE OF LANGUAGES, LANGUAGE LEARNING METHOD : A GENERALIZED SET OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR ACCOMPLISHING LINGUISTIC OBJECTIVES CURRICULUM / SYLLABUS : DESIGN FOR CARRYING OUT A PARTICULAR LANGUAGE PROGRAM TECHNIQUE : ANY OF A WIDE VARIETY OF EXERCISE, ACTIVITIES, USED IN THE CLASSROOM

SOME COMINGS AND GOINGS IN LANGUAGE TECHING METHODOLOGY (JACK C. RICHARDS)

METHODS OR APPROACHES	PERIOD OF GREATEST INFLUENCE	MAIN FEATURES
Grammar Translation Method	Up to the 20th century	Ss study grammar rules then do translation exercises
Direct Method	Early 20th century	- No use of the Mother Tongue - Guided question and answer practice
Reading Method	Early to mid 20th century	Language taught through drill and pattern practice and memorized dialogs
Audiolingualism	1960s and 70s, mainly US	Language taught through drill and pattern practice and memorized dialogs
Situational Language Teaching	1950s to 1970s, mainly UK	Grammar taught through situations and substitutions drills
Communicative Language Teaching	1980s to present	Language taught through communicative practices
ESP Approach	1980s to present	Language of specific situations and needs is identified and taught
Alternative Methods (Humanistic Approaches) Total Physical Response Silent Way Community Language Learning Natural Approaches	1970 - 1990	Language taught through actions Language elicited through techniques requiring teacher talk. Language taught through bilingual techniques. Comprehension emphasized and no direct teaching of grammar
Content-based approach	1980s to present	Language taught through subject matter

Task-based Language Teaching	1990 to present	Language taught through tasks
Direct Method	1990 to present	Focus on skills and competences needed for specific purposes
Genre Approach/Text-based Instruction	1990 to present	Language taught in relation to specific genres

Some differences between a method and an approach:

An approach refers to a general set of principles that can be applied in different ways. For example, a grammar-based approach, the communicative approach, a genre-based approach.

A method is a specific teaching model drawing on a particular approach. For examples the Total Physical Response Method, the Direct Method, the Audio Lingual Method.

Some questions to ask of any method or approach:

Is the primary emphasis on INPUT, PROCESS, or OUTPUT?

Is it mainly relevant in ESL, EFL, or mother tongue education?

Is it primarily relevant in primary, secondary, vocational, or tertiary education?

A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

THE CLASSICAL METHOD :

FOCUSES ON GRAMATICAL RULES, MEMORIZATION OF VOCABULARY

AND OF VARIOUS DECLENSIONS AND CONJUGATIONS,

TRANSLATION OF TEXT, DOING WRITTEN EXERCISES

IN THE 19^TH CENTURY

THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD/INDIRECT METHOD

THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS (CELCE-MURCIA 1979:3)

CLASSES ARE TAUGHT IN L1, WITH LITTLE ACTIVE USE OF TARGET LANGUAGE

RICH VOCABULARIES ARE TAUGHT

USING ELABORATE EXPLANATIONS OF THE INTRICACIES OF GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR PROVIDES THE RULES FOR PUTTING WORDS TOGETHER,

PRODUCTION FOCUSES ON THE FORM AND INFLECTION OF WORDS

READING OF DIFFICULT CLASSICAL TEXT IS BEGUN EARLY

LITTLE ATTENTION IS PAID TO THE CONTENTS OF TEXTS AND TREATED AS

GRAMMAR ANALYSIS

DRILLS ARE EXERCISES IN TRANSLATING DISCONNECTED SENTENCES TL – L1

LITTLE OR NO ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO PRONUNCIATION

GOUIN’S THE SERIES METHOD

BASED ON THE STAGE OF CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

THE PRINCIPLE :

LANGUAGE LEARNING IS TRANSFORMING PERCEPTIONS INTO CONCEPTIONS

THE SERIES METHOD :

A METHOD THAT TAUGHT LEARNERS DIRECTLY AND CONCEPTUALLY A SERIES OF

CONNECTED SENTENCES THAT ARE EASY TO PERCEIVE

THE FIRST LESSON WOULD TEACH THE FOLLOWING SERIES

OF SENTENCES

I WALK TOWARD THE DOOR. I DRAW NEAR THE DOOR. I DRAW NEARER THE DOOR.

I GET TO THE DOOR. I STOP AT THE DOOR.

I STRETCH OUT MY ARM. I TAKE HOLD OF THE HANDLE,

I TURN THE HANDLE. I OPEN THE DOOR. I PULL THE DOOR

THE DOOR MOVES. THE DOOR TURNS ON IT HINGES. THE DOOR TURNS

AND TURN. I OPEN THE DOOR WIDE. I LET GO OF THE HANDLE.

THE CHANGING WINDS AND SHIFTING SANDS OF HISTORY

THE BERLITZ METHOD OR THE DIRECT METHOD

IT IS POPULAR THROUGH THE END OF THE 19^TH CENTURY.

THE BASIC PREMISE OF THE DIRECT METHOD WAS SIMILAR TO THAT OF GOUINS:

ESL LEARNING SHOULD BE MORE LIKE THE L1 LEARNING – LOTS OF ORAL

INTERACTION, SPONTANEOUS USE OF THE LANGUAGE, NO TRANSLATION, AND

LITTLE OR NO ANALYSIS OF GRAMMAR.

THE PRINCIPLES : (RICHARDS & RODGERS) (1986/2003)

1) CLASSROOM INTERACTION IS CONDUCTED IN THE TL.

2) ONLY EVERYDAY VOCABULARIES AND SENTENCES ARE TAUGHT.

3) ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS – ORGANIZED AROUND Q & A BETWEEN T & SS.

4) GRAMMARS ARE TAUGHT INDUCTIVELY.

5) NEW TEACHING POINTS ARE TAUGHT THROUGH MODELING AND PRACTICE.

6) CONCRETE VOCABULARY IS TAUGHT THROUGH DEMONSTRATION.

7) BOTH SPEECH AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION ARE TAUGHT.

8) CORRECT PRONUNCIATION AND GRAMMAR ARE EMPHASIZED.

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

(GROUNDED IN LINGUISTIC & PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY)

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

· IN THE 1930S & 1940S IN USA – RETURNED FROM DIRECT METHODS TO GTM

· THE WORLD WAR II – AMERICA NEEDS ORAL PROFICIENCY à THE ARMY METHOD DEVELOPED (FOCUS ON THE AURAL/ ORAL SKILL-ORAL ACTIVITY – PRONUNCIATION AND PATTERN DRILL AND CONVERSATION PRACTICE)

· THE ARMY METHOD SUCCESS AND THE NATIONAL INTEREST MADE EDUCATORS ADOPT THE ARMY METHOD WHICH IN 1950S CAME TO BE KNOWN AS ALM

THE CHARACTERISTICS

1) NEW MATERIAL IS PRESENTED IN THE DIALOGUE FORM

2) DEPENDENCE ON MIMICRY, MEMORIZATION OF SET PHRASES & OVER LEARNING

3) STRUCTURES ARE SEQUENCED BY MEANS OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS AND TAUGHT AT ONE TIME

4) STRUCTURAL PATTERNS ARE TAUGHT USING REPETITIVE DRILLS

5) THERE IS LITTLE OR NO GRAMMATICAL EXPLANATION (INDUCTIVE ANALOGY)

6) VOCABULARY IS STRICTLY LIMITED AND LEARNED IN CONTEXT

7) THERE IS MUCH USE OF TAPES, LANGUAGE LABS, AND VISUAL AIDS

8) GREAT IMPORTANCE IS ATTACHED TO PRONUNCIATION

9) VERY LITTLE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE BY TEACHERS IS PERMITTED.

10) SUCCESSFUL RESPONSES ARE IMMEDIATELY REINFORCED

11) THERE IS AN EFFORT TO GET STUDENTS TO PRODUCE ERROR – FREE UTTERANCES

12) THERE IS TENDENCY TO MANIPULATE LANGUAGE AND DISREGARD CONTENT

THE COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

PRINCIPLE

GIVING ATTENTION TO LANGUAGE USE AND NOT JUST USAGE, TO FLUENCY AND NOT JUST ACCURACY, TO AUTHENTIC LANGUAGE AND CONTEXT , AND TO STUDENT’S EVENTUAL NEED TO APPLY CLASSROOM LEARNING IN THE REAL WORLD WILL LEAD TO THE SUCCESS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

THE PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATION

· EXPLAIN GRAMMATICAL ITEMS AS ONE PART OF A LESSON WITHOUT NEGLECTING OTHER IMPORTANT PARTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (C.G PRAGMATIC, STRATEGIC, AND PSYCHOMOTORIC)

· MAKE THE LESSONS AIM TO TEACH FUNCTIONAL AND SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS

· REMEMBER THAT PSYCHOMOTORIC SKILLS (PRONUNCIATION) ARE AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT.

· MAKE THE SS HAVE OPPORTUNITIES TO GAIN SOME FLUENCY IN THE TL WITHOUT BEING OVERLY WORRIED OF LITTLE MISTAKES ALL THE TIME;

· TRY TO KEEP EVERY TECHNIQUE THAT YOU DO AS AUTHENTIC AS POSSIBLE

· PREPARE THE SS TO BE INDEPENDENT LEARNERS AND LANGUAGE MANIPULATORS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CLL

ADVANTAGES	DISADVANTAGES
· THIS METHOD CAN OVERCOME SOME OF THE THREATENING AFFECTIVE FACTORS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING · THIS METHOD WOULD BE A VERY USEFUL METHOD IF : THE TEACHER TRY TO AVOID THE INITIAL COMPLETE DEPENDENCE STAGE; OR PROVIDE MORE DIRECTIVENESS THEN CLL ADVOCATES	· THE COUNSELOR-TEACHER CAN BECOME TOO DIRECTIVE · IT RELIES UPON INDUCTIVE STRATEGY OF LEARNING · THE SUCCESS OF CLL DEPENDS LARGELY ON THE TRANSLATION EXPERTISE OF THE COUNSELOR

SUGGESTOPEDIA

THE PRINCIPLE

(BASED ON BURGARIAN PSYCHOLOGIST, GEORGI LOZANOV 1979)

THE HUMAN BRAIN COULD PROCESS GREAT QUANTITIES IF GIVEN THE RIGHT CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING, FOR EXAMPLE RELAXATION.

A SUGGESTOPEDIA

LANGUAGE CLASS

THE CENTRAL OF THIS METHOD IS MUSIC

· AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SESSION, ALL THE CONVERSATION STOP

· THE TEACHER LISTENS TO THE MUSIC COMING FROM THE TAPE RECORDER

· AFTER SEVERAL PASSAGES, THE TEACHER BEGINS TO READ THE NEW TEXT

· THE STUDENTS FOLLOW THE TEXT IN THEIR TEXT BOOKS WHERE EACH LESSON IS TRANSLATED INTO THE MOTHER TONGUE.

· BEFORE THE SECOND PART OF THE CONCERT, THERE IS SEVERAL MINUTES OF SILENCE

· THE TEACHER READS THE NEXT TEXT AND THE STUDENTS CLOSE THEIR TEXT BOOKS WHILE LISTENING TO THE TEACHER

· AT THE END THE STUDENTS LEAVE THE ROOM SILENTLY WITHOUT ANY HOMEWORK

THE NATURAL APPROACH

( MANIFESTED BY KRASHEN THEORIES OF L2 ACQUISITION )

THE PRINCIPLES

· LEARNERS WOULD BENEFIT FROM DELAYING PRODUCTION UNTIL THEY ARE READY TO DO SO. COMPREHENSION PRECEDES BEFORE PRODUCTION.

· LEARNERS SHOULD BE AS RELAXED AS POSSIBLE I THE CLASSROOM

· A GREAT DEAL OF COMMUNICATION ACQUISITION SHOULD TAKE PLACE

· THE INITIAL TEACHER TASK IS TO PROVIDE COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT THAT IS UNDERSTANDABLE TO THE LEARNERS

· THE TEACHER IS THE SOURCE OF THE LEARNERS INPUT AND THE CREATOR OF AN INTERESTING AND STIMULATING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES.

THE GOALS CLASSROOM

ACTIVITIES

	- BASIC PERSONAL COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS (ORAL /WRITTEN) AND ACADEMIC LEARNING SKILLS (ORAL / WRITTEN)
			FOCUS ON MEANING NOT FORM · THE PRODUCTION STAGE (DEV. LISTENING SKILLS) · THE EARLY PRODUCTION (FOCUS ON MEANING) · ON OF THE EXTENDING PRODUCTION (GAMES, REPLAYING, DISCUSSION, GROUP WORK ETC)

FIVE METHODS

OR THE SPIRITED SEVENTIES

CLL SUGGESTOPEDIA THE SILENT TPR THE NATURAL

WAY APPROACH

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

(AN AFFECTION BASED METHOD )

CHARLES CURRANT, 1972

CLL PRINCIPLE

· LEARNERS IN CLASSROOM ARE REGARDED AS A “GROUP”. A GROUP THAT NEEDS CERTAIN THERAPY AND COUNSELING (CAR ROGERS’)

· THE SOCIAL DYNAMICS OF SUCH GROUPS IS PRIMARY IMPORTANCE ( IN THE DYNAMICS OF COUNSELING, THE COUNSELOR AIDS THE CLIENT MOVING FROM DEPENDENCE AND HELPLESSNESS TO INDEPENDENCE AND SELF-ASSURANCE

· LEARNING WILL TAKE PLACE WHEN THE MEMBERS INTERACT IN AN INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP

· SS & T JOIN TOGETHER TO FACILITATE LEARNING IN A CONTEXT OF VALUING AD PRIZING EACH OTHER IN THE GROUP.

CLL CLASSROOM

ACTIVITIES

· THE GROUP OF CLIENTS (SS) ARE SEATED IN A CIRCLE WITH THE COUNSELOR (T) ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE CIRCLE

· WHEN ONE CLIENT WISHES TO SAY SOMETHING HE / SHE SAYS IT IN L1 THEN THE COUNSELOR TRANSLATED THE UTTERANCE BACK TO THE LEARNER IN TL.

· THE LEARNER THEN REPEATS THE TL SENTENCE AS ACCURATELY AS POSSIBLE

· ANOTHER CLIENT RESPONDS THE UTTERANCE TRANSLATED BY THE COUNSELOR AND THE CONVERSATION CONTINUES.

· IF POSSIBLE THE CONVERSATION IS TAPED FOR LISTENING AND FOR SOME EXPLANATION OF CERTAIN LINGUISTIC RULES